Occupying most of the Indian subcontinent in southern Asia, India is the second most populous country having Civilisational roots. Geopolitically important and geographically vast, it is located at the confluence of East Asia and the Central Asia. Jutting out into the sea for above 3, 000 km it is surrounded by the Indian Ocean in the east, south and west. The Aryan tribes are believed to have entered the area after they migrated into the South Asian subcontinent from the north-west. During the 4th century BCE, Alexander the Great introduced Greek practices into the region when he expanded across Central Asia. Throughout subsequent periods Arab, Turks and Mongols entered India and in 1526, a Mughal Empire was established here, which later expanded throughout most of northern India and at times touched down south. Much of India's history after the 1500s was dominated by the British influences and later colonisation. The first British colony was in 1619 set up by the East India Company at Surat. Shortly thereafter, permanent trading settlements opened in present-day Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata. British influence then continued to expand from these initial trading stations and by the 1850s engulfed most of India. By the late 1800s, Indians under the leadership of Indian National Congress began working toward independence which after a long struggle succeeded to attain independence on August 15, 1947.

When we look at India in its geographical confines, it is very easy to make out its neighbourhood physically located next to it. This neighbourhood has been changing with the changing dynasties and empires as history evolved from ancient times to the contemporary era.

Around 7, 000 BCE, the first known Neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh, on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, and other sites now in Pakistan. These settlements, centered on cities such as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation and flourished further during 2500–1900 BCE in the area now part of Pakistan and western India. During the period 2000–500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent culturally transitioned to the Iron Age. This period encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.

The Vedas were composed during this period probably in Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plains. In the late Vedic period, around the 5th century BCE, the small chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas (ancient Indian kingdoms that existed between the sixth and third centuries BCE).¹ India was connected with the other known civilizations through the ancient Silk Road comprising a series of trade and cultural transmission routes. These routes originated during the 1st century BC and played a key role to promote India's trade interaction with Rome, Egypt, and Greece and other regions of the Asian continent. Silk Road connected the West and East by linking traders, merchants, pilgrims, monks, soldiers, nomads and urban dwellers from China up to the Mediterranean Sea.² Ancient neighbourhood of India included Persia and Afghanistan in the west; Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet and China in the north-east; Burma to the east; and Sri Lanka to the South.

Neighbourhood perception kept on changing under the Delhi Sultanate. While Memluks (1206–1290) were confined to a limited area, Khiljis (1290–1320) extended their geographical areas touching present-day Afghanistan. Tughlaqs (1321–1414) extended their empire down south, during the Lodi period (1451– 1526). Delhi Sultanate criss-crossed the Indian subcontinent which also included parts of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. Most of these rulers came from outside India and maintained trading and cultural links with their native lands back home.³ Throughout the effective period of Mughal Empire (1605–1707), Persian Safavid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara in the north-west and Tibet in the north and Sri Lanka in the south were India's next door neighbours. Present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan was part of Mughal Empire under Akbar's rule during 1556–1605. During Akbar's regime the Mughal Empire dealt with the Portuguese even formed an alliance with the Catholic Portuguese to punish the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the Arabian Peninsula at that time. Akbar maintained cordial diplomatic ties with the Safavid Empire. Jahangir adopted his father's foreign policy both in Northern and Southern India. During the Mughal period the empire did not have a definite neighbourhood policy.⁴ Though, it consistently kept relations with the rulers of Mecca, Medina, Persia, Ottoman Empire and Maldives.

Under the British rule India extended its territories annexing Burma. British India had its borders touching Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Thailand. Government of British India maintained diplomatic relations with the rulers of these countries. British India had colonies (such as the Aden Settlement), who sent and received full diplomatic missions, and it was a founder member of both the League of Nations and the United Nations. Under the British rule, India developed relations with its neighbours using the modern means of communications to reach out to the natural, geographical frontiers of India for political and administrative consolidation of the British rule. This was essential both for defense and for internal cohesion.

India under the British did not have a foreign policy based on the needs and interests of the people of the country, rather the policy of a country ruled by a foreign power primarily serving the interests of the master. The foreign policy that the Government of India followed was dictated from London with two major aims: the protection of its invaluable Indian empire and the expansion of British commerce and other economic interests in Africa and Asia. Britain also aimed to keep the other European powers at a distance from India and this often led the British Indian government to commit aggression on India's neighbours. In other words, during the period of British rule, India's relations with its neighbours were ultimately determined by the commercial needs of the British.

British waged a war on Nepal in 1814, after which Nepal government was forced to accept a British Resident and cede the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon and to abandon claims to the Tarai areas. Kingdom of Burma was conquered by the British after an incessant campaign during 1824 to 1885. Its annexation helped the British to check the spread of French commercial and political influence in Burma and the rest of Southeast Asia.The British Indian government fought two wars with Afghanistan before its relations with the Government of Afghanistan became stabilized.⁵ For the British safe passage for its cargo ships was critical. To protect its trading vassals which transported Persian oil, Malayan rubber, Indian tea, Australian and New Zealand foodstuffs through the Indian Ocean waters, the British ringed the Ocean littoral with its possessions virtually converting the Indian Ocean into a British “lake”.⁶

On becoming independent in 1947, India's neighbouring countries included East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), Bhutan, China, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, West Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Most of these countries had cultural, political and economic similarities with India and at one point of time some of them were part of India. To establish good relations with its neighbours was an important priority. Working on the premise of maintaining good relations; promote international peace and security; and maintain just and honourable relations between nations India formulated its officially stated statutes based foreign policy.⁷

Relations with the neighbours always occupied a central place in India's foreign policy as a peaceful periphery was necessary to focus on the essential task of development. India has made extra efforts to strengthen relations with the neighbours, tried to build the bridges of friendship.

Security has been a driving force of India's neighbourhood policy. To begin with, Jawaharlal Nehru, who then headed a provisional government (formed on 2 September 1946) that was preparing for India's Independence, considered the countries of Asia and Africa as the neighbours. He hosted the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi in March-April 1947 as a first attempt to assert Asian unity. He especially welcomed the delegates “from our neighbors Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma and Ceylon to whom we look especially for co-operation and close and friendly intercourse”. Nehru laid great emphasis on the manner in which post-colonial India would rebuild its Asian connections. At the conference Nehru declared:

“… Asia is again finding herself... one of the notable consequences of the European domination of Asia has been the isolation of the countries of Asia from one another... Today this isolation is breaking down because of many reasons, political and otherwise... This Conference is significant as an expression of that deeper urge of the mind and spirit of Asia which has persisted In this Conference and in this work there are no leaders and no followers. All countries of Asia have to meet together in a common task...⁸

Another inter-Asian conference was convened by Nehru at Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA) in January 1949 devoted to the independence of Indonesia which was attended by eighteen Asian countries. The theme and spirit of this Conference again was Asian solidarity.

Geographical insularity, caused by the Himalayas and the Indian Ocean made India very different from the rest of the countries of South Asia. Nehru recognized this geographical condition fit for adopting non-alignment. India opted for the foreign policy of Non-alignment with a desire not to be part of US and USSR led military alliances after the end of Second World War and pursues an independent foreign policy as determined by its national interest. Nehru said:

“I do not say that our country is superior or that we are above passion and prejudice, hatred and fury. But, as things are, there are certain factors which help us. First of all we are geographically so situated that we are not drawn into controversies with passionate fury that some other countries are. This is not due to our goodness or badness, but it is a matter of geography”.⁹

To defend the newly won freedom Nehru propagated the policy of Non-alignment and the neighbouring countries like Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became its members. Nehru's strategy was that the countries of Asia and Africa including its neighbours should keep away from military alliances thus arms race. He emphasized that these countries direly needed to embark on the pathway towards development and needed to exploit every possible option that could be of benefit. Aligning with any one global power would have limited these choices and would have meant reversing all that their freedom movements were about.

To promote cordial relations with neighbours, India entered into the Treaty of Friendship with Bhutan in August 1949 calling for peace between the two nations and non-interference in each other's internal affairs. Bhutan agreed to let India “guide” its foreign policy and consult each other on foreign and defence affairs. It signed a bilateral treaty with Nepal in July 1950 establishing a close strategic relationship. India tried to build friendship with China by signing Panchsheel agreement in 1954. It signed the Indus Waters Treaty, a water-sharing treaty with Pakistan brokered by the World Bank (then the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) in September 1960. India created friendly and close relations with the neighbouring island-republic Maldives for strategic, economic and military cooperation. India helped Maldives by launching Operation Cactus when in November 1988 armed militants of the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam tried to take over the government there. India built strong relations with Sri Lanka encompassing all areas of contemporary relevance including trade and investment, cooperation in the fields of development, education, culture and defense and other major issues of international interest.

During the Cold War years, Pakistan figured high on India's list of Foreign Policy priorities. India had to fight three wars with Pakistan and confront Pakistan's stance on Kashmir. India consistently remained pro-Arab as its national interest demanded and to neuteralise Pakistani proximity with the Arab countries. India was a part of the Islamic Summit Conference held at Rabat in September 1969, which led to the birth of the Organisation of Islamic Countries (OIC) but could not become its member. In 2006, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia suggested that India, like Russia, could be given an observer status in the OIC. But Pakistan strongly objected to the proposal.¹⁰

Cold War neared its end with the opening of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 and subsequent German reunification. Russian support to the US-led UN alliance forces in the first Gulf War (1990–1991) virtually marked the end of Cold War. The qualitative and structural changes brought about by the end of the Cold War led to paradigm shift in India's foreign policy. The foreign policy preferences of the Cold War period changed, and India gave a fresh thought to its role and preferences in the changing world order. Shift in India's Foreign policy can be attributed to many incumbent internal and external factors and a futuristic view of the world.

India had faced worst balance of payment crises in late 1980s, which compelled it to open up to the world economy. In the absence of a strong political party governing the country it was facing frequent change of governments and these governments lacked vision and will to formulate long term foreign policy. Rising inflation, government subsidies, high interest rates, and a concomitant decline in overseas remittances during the latter half of the1980s had contributed to overall decline in India's economy. There was a substantial rise in non- productive expenditure e.g. subsidies grew from 8.5 percent in 1980–81 to 11.4 percent in 1989–90.

In its immediate neighbourhood, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) had failed to achieve the desired results of cooperation as much was hoped. Under the unfolding new economic order India had less economic interests in the Middle-East. Although India possessed business interests in that region and provided labour and professionals to the Middle-East, the relationship had been more of a dependence on the oil and remittances. Politics of Islam was exploited by Pakistan through the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) and tended to work against India's interests. Geo-political instability and the lately emerging threat of terrorism also dissuaded India from undertaking worthwhile financial investments there. Under the circumstances India started moving toward Southeast Asia to build strong economic, strategic and political ties.

The economic ascendance of East Asia and China had made India to watch and emulate its Southeast Asian neighbours. Manmohan Singh, who became Finance Minister and the architect of the Indian Economic Reforms, had been Secretary General of the South Commission of the UN in Geneva from 1987 to 1990. He had often repeated that Korea and India had the same GDP per capita in the 1950s and that South Korean model of economic growth could be emulated. In September 1995, he declared, “the economic policies of India take into account the dynamism of this region (Asia-Pacific), which shall soon be the tiger-economy of the world. We want to be participant in this process”. India drew inspiration from the East Asian path of development and become more closely associated with this region in economic terms. This desire was officially expressed by Narsimha Rao, the Prime Minister of India in 1994 during his visit to Singapore. He said:

“The Asia Pacific could be the springboard for our leap into the global market place…I am happy to have had this opportunity to enunciate my belief in this vision of a new relationship between India and the Asia-Pacific from Singapore, which I consider the geographic and symbolic centre of the Asia-Pacific. I trust this vision will be realized… and that the next century will be a century of partnership for us all”.¹¹

Growing proximity between China and Myanmar; her concomitant support to the insurgent groups of India's northeast; Chinese economic and military cooperation and use of some islands of Myanmar as a strategic observatory; China's gaining of economic and military foothold in Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka was another point of concern for India. Underground arms market of Cambodia, which was becoming an important source of arms for the insurgent groups, compelled India to take care of its national security which could be threatened from the East. To experiment new alternatives India devise the Look- East Policy to engage and create close relations with its immediate eastern neighbours.

Under the Look-East Policy, India launched Mekong-Ganga Cooperation in November 2000 which emphasised on cooperation in tourism, culture, education, and transportation linkage of India with Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Similarly, the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) was formed in 1997 involving Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bhutan and Nepal for cooperation in sectors like trade and investment, transport and communication, energy, tourism, technology and fisheries.

In a bid to become part of the Asia-Pacific Rim, India increased its cooperation with the ASEAN. India became a sectoral dialogue partner of ASEAN in 1992, which was upgraded to full dialogue partnership in 1996. Since 2002, India has annual Summits with ASEAN. Celebrating the 10^th anniversary of Summit–level partnership with ASEAN a Commemorative Summit was held in New Delhi under the theme ‘ASEAN-India Partnership for Peace and Shared Prosperity’ on December 20–21, 2012. The Summit was attended by the leaders from all the 10 ASEAN countries elevating India's partnership to a ‘Strategic Partnership’. Summit also adopted the ‘ASEAN-India Vision Statement’, to chart the future of ASEAN-India cooperation.¹²

India launched the “FOCUS: AFRICA” Programme in 2002 giving a boost to India's trade with the Sub-Saharan African Region which had remained negligible so far. The countries identified to be included were South Africa, Mauritius, Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Nigeria, and Ghana. This programme was extended in March 2003 to include 24 countries. Among these the countries of Indian Ocean littoral included Egypt, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa, Sudan and Tanzania.

The new foreign policy initiatives make it amply clear that India is making concerted efforts to break the shackles of old perception of its neighbourhood and charter for new avenues. In this regard Indian Ocean region is emerging as most favourable area and as a new focus of India's foreign policy.

Embedded, and terrestrially moored to the surrounding ocean India is a gift of the Indian Ocean. Named after India by the Arabs who called it Bahr-e-Hind, Indian Ocean had served as a protective shield around the sub-continent till maritime activity perforated this shield through the advent of the Europeans from the 16^th century onwards. Until then, life and history of India was entirely north-bound.With a coastline of 7, 516 km in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, India has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.01 million Sq. km. The resource-rich EEZ provides 68 percent of its oil production (at Bombay High) and fish production of 2.82 million tonnes. About 90 percent by volume and 77 percent of total value of India's trade depends on the ocean.

India has 1, 197 island territories in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshdweep islands in the Arabian Sea are geopolitically significant and extend India's boundary deep south into the Indian Ocean, simultaneously making Indonesia, a close neighbour. The archipelago of these islands provides India an extended continental shelf and area for exploitation of the shelf and the Indian Ocean seabed.¹³

By virtue of its location in the Indian Ocean, India has close neighbourhood not only with Bangladesh, Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, but also the countries of south and east coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf and Arabian Peninsula bound with it by its waters. India's concerns about the goings on in the Indian Ocean have been enormous. India was concerned about use of Indian Ocean by the US to contain the Soviet Communism. When the British withdrew from the east of Suez in 1971 and “power vacuum” theory was projected to justify corresponding entry of the US naval forces in the Indian Ocean, India contested it. India opposed the militarisation of the Indian Ocean and handing over of Diego Garcia to USA which eventually became an effective US naval base. India knew that the US naval presence will be counterproductive as Soviet naval forces too began showing their presence in the region and look out for possible naval bases around the Ocean littoral. India advocated that Indian Ocean should be declared as a ‘Zone of Peace’ and be kept a nuclear free area.¹⁴

India is heavily dependent on Indian Ocean for the import of its entire oil and gas supplies crucial for its energy security. To protect its trading ships and offshore assets India has built up a formidable navy and Coast Guard. Its navy with three commands (Western, Eastern and Southern) and two naval fleets are equipped with ships, air craft carrier and submarines. To protect its economic and territorial interests and Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCS) it has also developed air bases at Port Blair and Car Nicobar in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands along with a joint military command at Port Blair. Indian Navy commenced anti piracy patrols in the Gulf of Aden commencing from October 2008. A total of 1104 ships (139 Indian flagged and 965 foreign flagged from 50 different countries) have been escorted by Indian Navy ships through the Internationally Recommended Transit Corridor (IRTC).¹⁵ No other country in the region has such an impressive and powerful navy. It speaks of India's growing involvement in the Ocean to protect its trade and maritime interests.

In the area of defence India has extended help to the friendly countries of the Indian Ocean region by training their defence, para-military and police personnel in various fields. These foreign defence persons attend Campus programmes to learn modern scientific management. Training is also given to middle level officers from these countries at Defence Services Staff College, Wellington. The Military College of Telecommunication Engineering, Mhow, impart training in signals, information technology and communication to the defence and para military forces. At the Army School of Physical Training Pune, instructors are trained from the countries like Maldives, Mauritius, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. Under Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme of Ministry of External Affairs, training is provided to Army personnel from the countries of Southeast Asia and Africa.¹⁶

Pace of cooperation with the countries of Indian Ocean has expanded over the years. India regularly conducts Joint naval exercises with Malaysia, Singapore, Iran etc including the transfer of naval warfare technology and training to the officers from Maldives, Mauritius Indonesia, Sudan etc. Indian warships are making port-calls in Bangladesh, Myanmar and ports of many other countries. Indian Navy hosts “Milan”, a biennial conglomeration of Asia-Pacific maritime navies, to foster bonds of ‘friendship across the seas’, boost interoperability and share views on common maritime issues. From four navies in 1995, “Milan” has grown to include 14 navies in 2012 including Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei, Philippines, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Vietnam, Malaysia, Maldives, Seychelles and Mauritius.¹⁷

After independence, India had little trade with its neighbours and its economy was bound with and subservient to that of Great Britain and some Commonwealth Countries. Even after independence the direction of trade did not immediately shift much to its neighbourhood but instead to the eastern bloc countries and the Soviet Union. India's trade with Central Asia and Afghanistan depends on Pakistan with whom usually India did not have cordial relations. To promote trade among SAARC the SAFTA agreement was signed in 2004 which came into force on 1 January 2006. However, intra-SAARC trade flows under SAFTA remain far below its potential. As of 2013, the total value of exports by Member States under SAFTA had reached just about US$ 3 billion. On the other hand, after1991, India has strengthened its trade ties with the countries of the Indian Ocean Region. The major commodities India exports include textiles, chemical and related products, engineering goods, gems and jewelry, petroleum products and agricultural products etc. Major import commodities to India from the Region include petroleum, which constitutes electronic goods, gold, machinery and metal ores and scraps. About one-third of India's exports are now directed towards the countries of the Indian Ocean Region. Significantly, India has trade links with all the countries and island states of the Region.

India has very few subsidiaries or joint ventures in its traditional neighbourhood. India had only 244 approved joint ventures abroad till 1991mainly on the Indian Ocean littoral. By 2001 India had about 2, 368 business ventures abroad and a large number of them were concentrated in the Indian Ocean region. The countries include Malaysia, Thailand, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Indonesia, United Arab Emirates, Kenya, Kuwait, Egypt and Mozambique. The number of Indian Wholly Owned Subsidiaries (WOS) has also substantially increased.¹⁸ In 1992, the approval to set up such subsidiaries was granted to 28 WOS which reached 143 in 1996 and 238 in 1999. These all are more concentrated in about 11 out of 28 littoral and 6 island states. The Countries of the Indian Ocean Region have 32.16 percent, i.e. about one-third of Indian investment abroad.

India is increasingly contributing to build economies and infrastructure in the Indian Ocean region. For example, in the year 2003–04, India initiated a “Team Nine” initiative to boost links with African countries. Indian aid to African countries was Rs. 71.62 crores in 2003–04 which went up to Rs. 104.54 crores in 2004–05. India has provided assistance to developmental projects in the countries of Africa and Southeast Asia for which overall budget allocation for the purpose was Rs.3, 410 crore in 2003–04 and Rs. 3, 640 crore in 2004–05. During the disaster inflicted by the Indian Ocean tsunami India provided financial aid of Rs. 100 crore to Sri Lanka, 5 crore to Maldives and provided relief and rehabilitation packages to Indonesia and Thailand.¹⁹

With its 354 Universities, about 18 thousands of Colleges, 428 Engineering Colleges and more than hundred of Medical Colleges along with IITs, IIMs and Indian Institutes of Science (IISc), India is emerging as a favoured destination for the students from these countries. To spread and promote Indian culture, Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR) is acting like a bridge between India and the countries of the Indian Ocean Region. Indian dance troupes, cultural delegations, singers and musicians visit and perform in the countries like UAE, Singapore, Malaysia, Kenya and the Gulf countries. The country has set up Maulana Azad Centre for Indian Culture in Cairo (Egypt), Indian Culture Centers in Durban, Johannesburg (South Africa), Colombo (Sri Lanka) and Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia). Jawaharlal Nehru Indian Cultural Centre is an important outpost of Indian Culture at Jakarta, Indonesia.²⁰

There is no doubt that Indian Ocean is fast emerging as India's future neighbourhood. After the end of Cold War, Indian foreign policy has taken a definite shift towards the countries of the Indian Ocean region. It was imperative on its part to secure maritime environment to achieve sustained development. India has taken to maintain and improve its multifaceted presence in these countries. It seems India is making Indian Ocean and its littoral as central to new neighbourhood foreign policy. From India's broad interaction with the Indian Ocean and its littoral states the Region is emerging as co-dependent future neighbourhood. India is emerging as powerful political and economic player and accordingly its foreign policy has shifted towards a new paradigm which it thinks rightful for the future.

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