Social skills are most often thought of as a set of skills that allow us to communicate, relate and socialize with others. One should note that social skills from one culture to another may be defined differently. Social skills include both verbal and nonverbal forms of communication. They often are the way others determine our status, consider us as potential friends or mates, and consider us for employment or promotions in the workplace. The opposite of social skills (which imply skill), is social ineptitude, which is an inability to use the defined set of social skills that would make one a good communicator.

The social skills training utilize a primarily cognitive-behavioral approach to teach social skills to children, adolescents, and adults who have social-communication difficulties. These may include autistic spectrum disorders, attention deficit disorders, and other psychiatric conditions or learning disabilities that may be associated with social difficulties.

Three principal goals of social skill training:

1. To provide relevant social skill instruction that will generalize into daily routines.

2. To make socializing fun so that students want to socialize.

3. To help “typical” peers and professionals become more understanding, accepting, and engaging of those with social difficulties.

In most English speaking countries social skills are both verbal and nonverbal. Verbal social skills include being able to determine the appropriate thing to say at the appropriate time, being able to communicate in ways that are engaging, have a range of vocal tone and quality, and being able to speak in an educated but reasonably understandable manner. In a sense, social skills are judged by what we say, when we say it, and how we say it.

The other aspect of social skills is nonverbal. Body language, standing up straight, making eye contact, making appropriate gestures, leaning toward the person one is speaking to, smiling appropriately, and keeping the body open can all define good nonverbal social skills. It should be noted that these things can be overdone. Gestures can be too dramatic, people who smile too much may not be trusted, and leaning too far forward into someone else's personal space may be considered rude.

In addition, the person with good social skills listens well. Nodding of the head, the occasional quick comment, and clearly taking in someone else's communications is valuable People don't simply wish to be talked to; they want to be talked with. A sense that both communicators are taking equal part in a conversation demonstrates advanced social skills. Though social skills can be learned, some people seem to have an innate sense of good social skills.

Recent research has indicated that social skills deficits in early childhood, if untreated, are relatively stable over time, are related to poor academic performance, and may be predictive of social adjustment problems and serious psychopathology in adolescence and adulthood (Bakar & Hanafi, 2007; Deli-Amen 2006; Griner & Betz, 2005; Nurita, Shaharidin &Anion, 2004; Lussier 2003; Robinson 2000; Coie & Dodge, 1983; Coie & Krehbiel, 1984; Cowen, Pederson, Babigian, Izzo, & Trost, 1973; Parker & Asher, 1987; Roff, Sells, & Golden, 1972). In brief, children who persistently exhibit social skills defi cits experience both short- and long-term negative consequences, and these negative consequences seem to be precursors of more severe problems later in life. Because of the paucity of formal measures of children's prosocial behaviors, psychologists and educators face some signifi cant assessment and treatment challenges.

This paper provides evidence that social skills can be taught through appropriate teaching/learning techniques as well as providing the right learning environment for upward mobility in their careers for future challenges and global competitions.

Methods for assessing social skills vary along three primary dimensions: source, specifi city, and proximity of report to time of behavior performance (Gresham & Reschly, 1988). Thus, methods can rely on different sources, such as parents, teachers, peers, trained observers, or the subjects themselves. From these sources, information is provided that varies in specifi city, ranging from global or molar descriptions to molecular behaviors. Finally, to illustrate variation of assessment methods with respect to proximity of report or observation to time of behavior performance, we can contrast, for example, direct observations, which occur concurrently with the target behavior, with the completion of a behavior rating scale or analogue role-play, which can be quite removed in time and space from the actual occurrence of a target behavior. The combination of these dimensions plus the content focus of the method influences the utility or purpose of an assessment.

In general, the purposes of social skills assessments concern either identification/classifi cation or intervention/program planning. The critical characteristic that differentiates assessment methods is the extent to which a method allows for a functional analysis of behavior (i.e., the extent to which an assessment procedure provides data on the antecedent, sequential, and consequent conditions surrounding a molecular behavior). Table 1 characterizes social skills assessment methods along the dimensions of source, specifi city, and temporal proximity of report. A detailed examination of the psychometric properties and limitations of each of these methods is provided elsewhere (Elliott, 1988).

Academic course context

A cooperative learning project was designed to teach communication and social skills as well as some fundamental topics in information use (e.g., human information processing). An experimental unit in social skills training was integrated in psychology of information use, a core course at Emporia State University Library School, in Kansas, USA, between 1993 and 1995. The course description indicated that students would review basic concepts in the cognitive and communication sciences, and examine how they apply to the planning of information services for a population with varying cognitive, learning, and communication styles. The cooperative learning project was based on a course objective which sought that students “understand [their own] unique style(s) of information processing and relate that understanding to the cognitive styles of others.” It was felt that participative and student-centered learning would be an effective instructional strategy to transfer the skills of interviewing, mediation in information seeking, and attendant dispositions. The project was designed to foster openness and systematic reflection on the part of students. For example, they applied theoretical models to critique individual and group roles in seeking and sharing information, and managing group processes.

The need for clear and specific instructions is emphasized when cooperative learning strategies are used to impart social skills to children (Adams and Hamm, 1996). Since the students in this case were adults (many already have library jobs), the instructor adapted the discovery (Bruner, 1975) and experiential (Dewey, 1933) learning approaches to the project. Thus, although clear objectives were set for the project, the guidelines for implementation allowed for initiative on the part of students. The instructor kept intervention in the students’ processes to a minimum, thereby forcing them to impose their own structures to facilitate individual, task, and group roles, and goal attainment. They thereby learned from monitoring and evaluating their own experiences.

The project objectives, and instructional and evaluation modes, varied from semester to semester to accommodate class size, structure (weekends or week days), time constraints, and the experiences and input of previous participants. Needless to say, features of the project were added, modified, or deleted with each use. In all cases, however, the projects entailed up to ten hours of independent research and group discussions. The instructor observed the group processes for a few minutes at a time. No attempts were made to direct the discussions, except to respond to students’ queries. The projects terminated with debriefing sessions with the instructor. Participants kept a journal of their Expert Group interactions, noting and explaining significant verbal and non-verbal behaviors. They also submitted reflective papers based upon their perceptions and evaluations of the project. These sources as well as their course evaluations formed the bases for the project evaluation.

The social skills processes monitored included establishing group goals; playing leadership and other roles (e.g., gate keeping, harmonizing, summarizing) as necessary; negotiating individual and group responsibilities; responding to cues initiated by others; diffusing conflict; bringing group processes to closure; reflecting on and interpreting self and others’ behaviors. The cognitive skills included defining a topic (e.g., the brain and mind); analyzing it into its component subtopics (e.g., mental models within the “brain and the mind” Expert Group topic); reviewing the literature on the assigned subtopic; preparing a paragraph explaining the scope and content of the subtopic; giving two presentations, both repackaged to ensure effective communication and diffusion; using strategies to check for group members’ understanding of the topic presented; and evaluating presentation content and strategies.

The Group Investigation Method (Sharan and Sharan, 1994) was adapted to structure the group processes. This method required that students use interpersonal and study skills to attain specific learning goals. Students cooperated in carrying out their investigations and in planning how to integrate and present their findings. They also jointly evaluated their academic and social skills. The activities were organized in a ten–step sequence.

Cognitive Styles of Learning Group members: Students were assigned to Learning Groups of four members. Each member chose a topic for investigation. The options were the brain and the mind, human developmental stages, artificial intelligence and virtual reality, and human creativity and problem–solving. Participants were to investigate the implications of these topics for understanding information needs and seeking behaviors. At this meeting the students got to know each other, and shared information on their preferred learning and communication strategies. These strategies reflected their cognitive and problem solving styles. Individuals who differ in their cognitive styles are said to approach similar information processing situations in different ways (Riding and Cheema, 1991; Mitroff and Mason, 1983). Group members were administered the Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1984) to ascertain their learning styles.

This inventory identifies four major learning styles: (i) concrete experience, i.e., oriented to feelings derived from specific experiences; (ii) reflective observation, i.e., oriented to watching, listening and seeking meaning through multiple perspectives; (iii) abstract conceptualization, i.e., oriented to logical analysis of ideas, systematic planning, and intellectual understanding of problems; and (iv) active experimentation, i.e., oriented to learning by doing. The validity of the inventory was discussed, particularly in relation to members’ reflections on their preferred learning modes and related experiences. Implications for presenting information to them later in the semester were also explored.

Social skills are arguably the most important set of abilities a person can have. Human beings are social animals and a lack of good social skills can lead to a lonely life, contributing to anxiety and depression. Great social skills help you meet interesting people, get that job you want, progress further in your career and relationships.

Happily, like any skill, social strategies and techniques can be learned…

The main social skills are as follows:

The ability to remain relaxed, or at a tolerable level of anxiety while in social situations.

Listening skills, including letting others know you are listening

Empathy with an interest in others’ situations

The ability to build rapport, whether natural or learned

Knowing how, when and how much to talk about yourself - ‘self disclosure’

Appropriate eye contact

When you had dinner with Gladstone, you were left feeling that he was the most charming person you had ever met. But after dinner with Disraeli, you felt that you were the wittiest, the most intelligent, the most charming person - Dr Warren Bennis

There are varieties of social skills such as: Cooperation, Sharing, Participation, Being a Friend, Helping Others, Being Patient, Following Directions, Taking Turns, Remaining on Task, Accepting Differences, Listening, Praising Others and Refraining from Put Downs, Positive Communication and Interactions v Being Polite and Courteous, Using Good Manners, Respecting Ourselves, Others and Items and Being Respectful.

Teaching the importance of using appropriate social skills belongs in every classroom regardless of grade or subject. Many children with behavior need benefits from the ongoing teaching of social skills. In the inclusional model, children with special needs will benefit from social skills learned by the regular students. When you think about it, most classroom and yard problems are a direct results of inappropriate social skills. Social skills are skills that can be learned at all ages, students need to be reminded that even adults continue to learn social skills. Students need to understand the importance of using effective social skills.

An Example of Teaching a Social Skill:

“Being a Good listener Lesson”

The teacher will brainstorm with the class all of the habits of a good listener. Probe students with the following questions: What does a good listener do? How do you know when somebody is a good listener? What are the qualities of a good listener? Accept the students response and record them on a piece of chart paper or on the chalk board. Make sure the children record the items in their notes. These can be used in the form of a rubric later to determine the quantities of a good listener.

The task: Students will now take turns in a role playing environment lo determine how effective they are at listing. Each student must tell the partner student about one of his/her favorite holidays. The student doing the talking will be taking note to see if the listener maintains eye contact, gives the appropriate nods to indicate understanding, asks for clarification by using the speaker's name, restarting occasionally if necessary, avoid making any judgments or interrupting. After that the student will exchange places. Social skills should be taught one at a time. The social skill of the week is one way to ensure that you address each of them. Remember, The IDEA Amendments of 1997 emphasize the need for teachers to be good role models for their students. During the school day, remember that you are one of the most visible role models of appropriate social skills that your students will see. For example, if treat others kindly and with respect, your students are more likely to do so, too.

Adequate social behaviour is very important. The basis of our human existence lies in contact with other people. Knowing how to behave in all kinds of social situations enables us to contact others and to maintain contact. Adequately applying social skills is regularly trained in a natural way from an early age; these skills are learned automatically in contacts with other people and by getting verbal and non-verbal feedback in differing situations and circumstances.

For people who have a visual and intellectual disability this learning process is much harder. The number of social skills that is learned is limited. It is much more difficult for these people to learn through observation and imitation, to apply learned behaviour (generalisation) in everyday situations, to test own behaviour against the (often non-verbal) reactions of the surroundings and to gain experience in various situations.

The ability to learn through imitation in order to compensate for the intellectual disability is restricted because of the visual impairment. The same applies for the compensation of the visual impairment; compensating use of other senses is needed, e.g. hearing. And in order to understand, interpret and remember it takes a lot more effort of the limited cognitive abilities.

Learning to apply effective social behaviour requires the learning process to be adapted for these people and it asks for an adequate support from the environment.

This learning process will be the subject of my presentation. I will tell why and in what way we offer adults with both a visual and intellectual disability an adapted Goldstein training in social skills.

Learning-Based Procedures Used in Social Skills Training

“Problem identification” is made in collaboration with the patient in terms of obstacles that are barriers to a patient's personal goals in his/her current life

“Goal setting” generates short-term approximations to the patient's personal goals with specification of the social behavior that is required for successful attainment of the short-term, incremental goals. The goal-setting endeavor requires the therapist or trainer to elicit from the patient detailed descriptions of what communication skills are to be learned, with whom are they to be used, where, and when

Through “role plays” or “behavioral rehearsal,” the patient demonstrates the verbal, nonverbal, and paralinguistic skills required for successful social interaction in the interpersonal situation set as the goal

“Positive” and “corrective feedback” is given to the patient focused on the quality of the behaviors exhibited in the role play

“Social modeling” is provided with a therapist or a peer demonstrating the desired interpersonal behaviors in a form that can be vicariously learned by the observing patient

“Behavioral practice” by the patient is repeated until the communication reaches a level of quality tantamount to success in the real-life situation

“Positive social reinforcement” is given contingent on those behavioral skills that showed improvement

“Homework assignments” are given to motivate the patient to implement the communication in real-life situations

“Positive reinforcement” and “problem solving” is provided at the next session based on the patient's experience using the skills

Today there is a growing number of adults who are being resettled in the community. They have a mild learning disability and they are blind or partially sighted. Their ages range between 21 and 50 years.

They have moved from the institute grounds to nearby villages and live alone, with a partner or with friends, just like other people. Some of them have moved from the workshops in the centre to a regular job in the free labour market. They get support according to the Supported Employment method.

It is important for these people to experience that also in new situations other non-disabled people see their behavior as adequate. It is striking that in their new housing or working situation others often interpret their social behavior as inadequate. The cause is usually a lack in common social skills, because these skills differ in some ways from those of the (highly) tolerant and accepting subculture of the centre in which they have grown up.

There is a risk of being avoided, of isolation or stigmatization and to prevent this they need to have knowledge of common social skills. But also support in how to apply these skills in various situations according to their own values. A training that is adapted to the visual and intellectual disability can therefore be of great help.

Recurring fixed parts in the programme and a guiding attitude of the trainer create a clear structure. Depending on the difficulty of the skill to be learned two to four meetings are generally needed; a meeting lasts for 11/2 hours at the most. Recurring fixed parts in the programme create a clear structure in the training.

A training group consists of five to seven participants and is led by two trainers preferably who can lead the different parts in the programme alternately.

The aims of the training are:

acquiring knowledge; knowing how to handle (difficult) situations

changing behaviour; developing skills to really behave adequately

alteration of perception; getting more self-confidence and thus more courage to act.

Which skills are included in the training? Every culture or subculture has its own prevalent social skills. To determine the basic social skills for a training it is essential to first make a list of the current social skills and then to analyse where people have a lack of knowledge and which skills are not or inadequately used.

Further the skills to be learned have to be familiar to people and it should be possible to break them down in small steps in order to fit in with the learning capacities.

Important parts in the training programme are:

making a skill concrete in order to show the importance and the aim; breaking down the skill in small steps

demonstrating familiar situations in order to show which steps should be made to apply a skill adequately

roleplays in which the skill to be learned and own situations are practised

assignments to practise the skill to be learned in all kinds of everyday situations.

How is the programme built up and what are the important didactic elements?

There are seven methods to improve social skills

Practise taking instructions

Listen carefully for things said and implied.

Clarify.

Understand what has been told to you.

Acknowledge that you have understood.

Reconfirm instructions by quickly summarizing what you have understood.

Practise explaining a problem to your supervisor/boss

The volume of your voice and tone. It should not be too soft, loud or screechy.

Be respectful.

Keep your emotions in check. Be calm. You may be flustered by the problem; however, you don't need to let your boss know that.

Remember to include all the facts of the problem. Try to find most of the answers yourself before approaching your boss.

Offer a solution if you can. Your boss will appreciate your initiative.

Practise asking for help

No man is an island. We all need people and people need us.

Two heads are better than one and, yes, four hands are better than two.

It is nice to be important but it is more important to be nice. Help others; they, in turn, will help you.

Be gracious when you accept or refuse help. This will enhance your chances of building a strong support system on which you can depend when you need help.

Practise accepting feedback

Appreciate the fact that someone has taken the risk of giving you feedback.

Be open to new ideas and new ways of thinking.

Don't take criticism personally because, even though it is about you, it is still the other person's perception; his or her views need not necessarily be the ‘real’ you

Feel free to accept or reject all or any part of the feedback without feeling obliged to explain your choice.

Practise giving constructive criticism

Stay focused. Don't confuse the person with the problem.

Keep tempers down.

Use a suggestive approach rather than a dismissive one.

Reiterate that the person is good but the problem could be handled differently.

Be sincere, honest and caring while giving constructive criticism.

Express your faith in the person and his/her ability to successfully implement and reap the benefits of the suggestions given.

Practise receiving compliments

Don't feel embarrassed and brush it off.

Never counter it with something negative about yourself.

Don't be arrogant; accept the compliment graciously.

Smile and thank the person for the compliment. Express genuine happiness.

Practise giving compliments

Use simple language. Smile and look into the person's eyes while complimenting him/her. It sounds more genuine this way.

Using filmi dialogues and a lot of actions could make it look like your aim is to flatter, not compliment.

Modulate your voice to match the expression of admiration on your face.

Don't laugh or giggle while complimenting someone. It could sound like you are being sarcastic.

Finally, remember a good social network will help one at work. One need social skills to find a job and to keep one. So, if social skills do not come easily to one, it will be well worth ones time to pinpoint ones weaknesses and work on them.

It is important for the participants to feel safe and to gain positive experiences in the training situation. So the attitude of the trainer always has to be accepting and confirming in a positive way. He shows understanding whenever a person finds it hard to participate actively, stimulates this person to at least try by starting with an easy exercise. In the feedback he stresses the things that were good and is alert on giving observable positive feedback, in words or in giving a pat on the back. Non-verbal feedback in the way of facial expressions are not or hardly perceived after all. The language used should be clear and should fit in with the language and understanding of the participant, with his situation and perception. This can be concluded from tests before and after the training, from reactions of participants and of people around them. They indicate that after the training the social behavior has become more effective and that the social skills have improved. The motivation and enthusiasm of the participants has generally been great. Undoubtedly this has positively affected the results.

The main aim is to enhance social work education and training on a global level, by facilitating dialogue within and across nations and regions. The document reflects global standards that schools of social work should consistently aspire towards, which (collectively and if met) would actually provide for quite sophisticated levels of social work education and training. This is as it ought to be - the provision of the best possible education and training for student social workers who, after qualifying, bear enormous responsibilities in their communities. The extent to which schools of social work meet global qualifying standards will depend on the developmental needs of any given country/region and the developmental status of the profession in any given context, as determined by unique historical, socio-political, economic and cultural contexts.

By locating the standards against the international definition of social work and the core purposes of social work, the document ensures an approach to education and training that supports human rights, social justice, and an essential commitment to caring for, and the empowerment of individuals, groups and communities. It also reflects a commitment to the personal and professional development of student social workers, with particular emphases on the development of the critically self-reflective practitioner and the place of values and ethics in social work education and training. In the formulation of the global qualifying standards the challenge has been for them to be specific enough to have salience, yet broad enough to be relevant to any given context. It is hoped that such sharing would provide the impetus for schools of social work to aspire towards the global qualifying standards for social work education and training elucidated in this document, and for continued dialogue within the profession on local, national, regional and global levels.

References